Synopsis

Mother Nature’s Gift to African Women a curse or a blessing?

African women played a key role during and after the slave trade ended. The connections put together between Women and Slavery Volume one: Africa, The Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic (Campbell, Miers & Miller, 2007), Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Morgan, 2004) and Gender and Slave Emancipation in the Atlantic World (Paton & Scully, 2005), show the roles African women played and contributed during slavery. So, what were the main roles of women during the slave trade that were highlighted within these three sources?

African women played a key role in the role of the family in Africa. Instead of having a patriarchal run household, everything ran through a matriarchal tradition. However, later on this custom was challenged and taken over by patriarchal ruling of the family once the slave trade kicked and is still prevalent in many societies today. African women were also exposed to changes in marriage. Before the slave trade began, women’s parents would choose who would marry their daughters and would give their dowry to their future husband, along with expectations both he and their daughter would have to obtain. Once the slave trade hit hard, African women were sold off to the highest bidder and were sometimes allowed to find another slave to marry if the owner wished it. Other times African women were not allowed to marry at all and would still be expected to do the chores of taking care of children whether they were theirs or their masters. Women went from no choice of who they were marry, to possibly choosing or losing the opportunity to marry at all. This only would complicate the role African women played in the structure of family and domestic life.

African women were expected to work in the domestic sector and fields. Women seemed more versatile or flexible in the types of work that they could endure and were given access to. African men were given typically the heavier workloads in the fields, and little admission to domestic work. Noticeably there were numerous dependencies of African slave women to their owners, yet there was additional from the owner on their African women slaves. It seems African men were given more of an opportunity to not be so caged in compared to women that were so close to their owners quarters and families constant needs and affections.

Unfortunately one of the roles African women were forced into was reproduction, which helped boot populations growth. Sometimes the process ended up being a very violent one through rape or even prostitution depending on their circumstances and owner.  This caused many issues with the idea and stances of what family and relationships with African women’s children were like compared to today’s societies.  It was not so easy for African women to escape their roles because of these complex emotional ties which helped mold in itself a new culture during the slave trade.

Short Essay # 5

            What is the concept of  Freedom? The different definitions of freedom are shaped by individuals and their circumstances they are faced with. Freedom has particular elements that all humankind wishes to take in at some point in their lifetime. In The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Olaudah Equiano’s concept of freedom grows and shifts with every situation he is put in and is constantly evolving. The concept of freedom from Equiano  is complex in its development and shares a relationship between Africans  and Europeans.

            Equiano’s concept of freedom changes from childhood to manhood. As Equiano grew up at home, it was evident that he lived a great life with a Chief for a father. He lived a very sheltered life, where he felt inferior to no one and safe from harm’s way. When Equiano was kidnapped he was put into the reality of the Atlantic slave trade world. As he  was still in the cultural areas as his home it was not a culture shock but it was traumatic to lose the nurturing feeling of his mother. The culture shock set in when Equiano met the sea of slave ships that he was then loaded into. Within the slave ship he became ill and  at that point his freedom he wished for was death, but was kept alive. Once Equiano gets off the slave ship he is put into different environments, some worse than others, he is given the opportunity to travel and to explore. He believes that becoming like an Englishmen he will help gain his freedom,  Equiano indulges in education and Christianity. Equiano finds himself wanting to earn or pay for his freedom from slavery instead of  running away.  He realizes that even when becoming a free African man that was once a slave it is difficult to lose the stigma that is involved and the inequality. There would always be white people who treated  Africans with violent beatings or kidnapped them. “I had thought only slavery dreadful; but the state of a free negro appeared to me now equally so at least, and in some respects even worse, for they live in constant alarm of their liberty, …” (Equiano, p. 117). The chances of succeeding in the life of a free African were not great and  they were dependent on others.  After Equiano realizes becoming a free African man would not truly grant him his freedom, he found it through his faith in Christianity by becoming a missionary he found his purpose, hoping that in the next life in heaven there would be a better life for him, one without bondage or oppression.

            The concept of freedom presented by Equiano gives forth a relationship between African and Europeans. During this time period European missionaries were trying to come forth and spread Christianity to others, especially Africans in the hopes that they would convert to their religion. A religion like Christianity gave an outlet for African slaves in hopes that they one day will have a better lifestyle in the next life, this hopeful freedom kept Africans hearts lively during the Atlantic slave trade but not all were willing to convert. “Ogun survives today in a number of West African countries and New World societies…” (Falola & Roberts, p. 121). Both whites and Africans were equal in that they are of the same humankind, which leads to the same survival instincts and threats by the unknown. Both groups searched for comfort either in religion, particular labels of social status, and trying to find control or power over their way of life. In the end however, black or white everyone dies and hopes to live on with the freedom of religion, hoping that there is a heaven out there. As Equiano shared his time of being an African slave there were shared feelings of his thoughts with others like himself.

            Equiano’s idea of freedom was shared by other Africans living in the eighteenth century Black Atlantic. Another former African slave by the name of Ottobah Cugoano also contributed to the same sorts of freedoms as Equiano, “…It was his own voice, that of an African commenting on the evils of slavery and on the beauty of his native land, that gave his work an impact” (Falola & Roberts, p. 230). During the 1700’s the idea of abolishing slavery was clearly thought about but unfortunately  not able to be put into action until 1865 with the 13^th Amendment. However, the majority of African slaves came from different cultural backgrounds and placed in different situations, some better than others. It was hard to always find unity, even with culture. Yes Africans kept what they knew but it was not always identical to other Africans cultural backgrounds. It does not seem that the majority of African slaves were given quite the same opportunities to be as well rounded as Equiano was. He was constantly on the move in different areas of work and truly tried to better himself, he always took the right path in staying true to himself and worked with what he had and grew to be a very influential individual. Not all African slaves were given this chance or had it in them to be so self-motivated, and that might be because of their own way of life playing out with no control over it all.

            Overall, the concept of freedom presented by Equiano and many other African slaves is multifaceted. The outlook on an individual’s outcome of life does not focus on race or ethnicity but on what they wish to obtain. Equiano would be so content knowing in the 1800’s his fellow race in America was given a chance to find a new freedom, the abolishment of slavery was finally put into place with the 13^th Amendment.

Essay # 4

Essay # 4

            The French were fond of the idea of helping free slaves when they came to France. There were many opportunities that gave slaves the possibility of possibly becoming free. The motivations of the individuals who were trying to help free slaves was not based on public opinion, instead most of the laws trying to help slaves were not passed by the court and caused a lot of problems for slaves. The motivations were a mixture of the freedom principle and individual’s personal agendas and views for France. The French attempted to help free slaves who set foot on French soil because of the chance for freedom and liberty, stronger commerce, and social equality.

            The freedom principle was something that the French’s political culture strived to achieve for slaves. Freedom and liberty in France was a hot topic for lawyers and magistrates working with the particular slaves position mentioned in “There Are No Slaves in France: The Political Culture of Race and Slavery in the Ancien Regime” by Sue A. Peabody. “By the end of the 1760s, then, two distinct routes to freedom had emerged within the Admiralty Court of France: petitions initiated by the slave (occasionally contested by the master), and manumission by the master, to be registered with the Admiralty Court” (Peabody, p. 92). Some of the important laws that were trying to be put into action in France that helped motivate the result of freeing of the slaves were the Edict of October 1716, Declaration of December 15, 1738 and the Declaration Pour la Police des Noirs August 9, 1777. Legislation did not go to the public for their opinion, meaning that laws were only seen at the institutional level of the French government officials and most of the surrounding courts. The public however knew the importance of the slave trade in their everyday lives.

            France was involved with the Atlantic slave trade as well as many other countries that relied on the work of slaves to help create items that could be sold at the market for French people to use at home. There are uncertain boundaries of Frances motivations to their own people and to the slaves who came to France. “…The only legitimate purposes for bringing black slaves to France was for them to receive religious instruction or to learn a trade” (Peabody, p. 81). The French knew that they needed to participate and reap the benefits of what the slave trade offered from other countries. But the French’s support in helping free the slaves seems contradictory if they are helping the slave trade continue with consumption of its products. It seems that France wanted to still have these materials and food items and wanted to somehow also have this façade of keeping up with their freedom principle. The political culture in France has been through its ups and downs but has promoted a great image of themselves when sending the message to others that there is no reason why slaves should not be free because they are just as human as the French people within France.

            The political culture meant well in its ideas of having social equality in France, but with it came many more slaves and restrictions trying to receive their freedom. Many of the lawyers and magistrates had a hidden agenda of political views and acted on them as the freeing of slaves motivations became less important in France. “…The population to be registered shifted from “slaves,” to “negroes and mulattoes” – a move from slave status to race” (Peabody, p. 74). Many of these individuals were racist in their views and tried to make laws about interracial marriages and other types of integration. Frances political stance on liberalism was celebrated with the principle of freedom and liberty with the French people in mind. Unfortunately the racial endorsement of freeing the slaves turned out to be something of a flop for the majority of slaves with all of its uncertainties that it was faced with.

            France dependence on the slave trade was crucial to the French people’s way of life either at the government level or the citizens living in this country. Legislator’s power struggle never made it to the court of Paris to help free slaves and was not enforced until later on. The French had good intentions of trying to free the slaves but could not get enough support to seal the deal. There were indeed slaves that were in France at the time during the 1700’s and 1800’s that did not receive their freedom and were sent back to their owners or the country they came from after a period of time. The possible political, social, and economical benefits seemed to in the end weigh more stress on the ability to actually free these slaves at this time.

           

Short Essay # 3

After completing W. Jeffrey Bolster’s book “Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail,” the perspective of African roles has only strengthened, developed and enriched American culture. Bolster has shown how both white and African Americans can unite and work together. African Americans helped to create a “black America” in the New World working directly with white Americans in such examples as ships, prisons and piracy.

            Bolster supports his thesis by showing that African Americans wanted most of the same things that white Americans wanted from life in the Americas. I agree with Bolster’s thesis, it helped African Americans communicate and build backbone in their cultural background in the New World. “Although formal boundaries could flex to accommodate human relationships, they never entirely broke down, and they essentially defined the social combinations and conflicts at the heart of seafaring life” (Bolster, p. 75). Africans strived to get freedom over themselves and not be controlled by others. Many African Americans wanted to become a seaman because they wanted to escape life out in the fields. Being a seaman was an elite job with more benefits for African Americans then the job offered to white Americans. “Whereas white seamen were among the most marginalized men in white society, black seamen found access to privileges, worldliness, and wealth denied to most slaves” (Bolster, p. 36). There was always a chance that African American seamen could still get sold even if they did have citizen papers, their white counterparts could retaliate on African Americans whenever they wanted. The inferiority complex was still in play even when African Americans role was higher up in the New World.

African Americans were not identical to other African descendants from additional parts of the New World. African Americans were however similar though in that their race or color of their skin was a shade of black and that the majority of Africans came from Africa and shared a similar culture. “…American slaves had embraced millennial aspects of Christianity, adapting it to their own dreams of deliverance from oppression” (Bolster, p. 124). But not all African Americans experienced the same cultures when they came to the New World. There was a different personal schemata that was primarily based on the situation that African Americans were faced with. “Forecastle life provided a middle ground in which black men did not necessarily assimilate “white” norms, nor maintain an autonomous “black” culture, but in which black and white men could afford temporarily to suspend attention to racial division” (Bolster, p. 90). All African Americans had to adjust to different playing fields and learn the ropes of their roles and jobs during the slave trade. African Americans were the same race as those who were African Latinos but had struggles that were unique to South American culture when looking at the accounts made by Thornton and McKnight and Garafalo. “In Spanish America, enslaved Africans employed strategies of escape, or marronage, in order to gain their freedom” (Garofalo & McKnight, p. 30).There were different boundaries that these African slaves were subjected to follow depending were they were place in either North or South America. “The African nations of the New World were not simply re-creating Africa; they were developing African concepts in the radically new political and cultural environment of the Americas” (Thornton, p. 326). In North America, African Americans had more of a chance for different types of work, freedom and other opportunities then some African Latinos did.

             Bolster was right to a point about making his case on African American sailors and seamen being first Americans and secondly “creoles.” For African American seamen there was less of a harsh line that divided the roles between blacks and whites. There had to be teamwork from both sides together to get their jobs done, even though higher end jobs at sea were handled by white men. “Despite collective work and similar appearances, and an easy  familiarity between many black sailors and their white shipmates, social identities still were conditioned significantly by race” (Bolster, p. 93). White Americans still had the upper hand over African Americans and saw them as Africans first and foremost. African American seamen saw themselves as Americans and then secondly as African “creoles” compared to the slaves they were hauling in their undercarriage. “Fearful or not, African American sailors resisted the degradation of southern laws by filing lawsuits, manipulating shipmasters against the state, and spiriting fugitive slaves to freedom” (Bolster, p. 214). African Americans had a purpose on a ship and felt that they were needed and knowledgeable; otherwise they would be out in the fields working with other African slaves.

            The argument made by Bolster on African American “Americanism” from the perspective of the displayed behavior of people of African descent are evident and reflected in both Thornton’s work and by McKnight and Garofalo. “Runaways could rarely hope to win complete freedom” (Thornton, p. 278). African slaves in the New World dreamed and strived for gaining their freedom to live a better life. “Maritime wages provided crucial support for black families and underwrote organizations such as churches and benevolent societies through which black America established an institutional presence and a voice” (Bolster, p. 4). African slaves wanted to have better living conditions and job choices. Africans slaves did not wish to assimilate, but rather keep their own cultural backgrounds. In the New World, African Slaves were a part of the inclusion that would  forever be a part of American History, many of the aspirations of Northern white Americans were seen by African slaves. “…Lima’s slaves most vigorously defended the right to buy their freedom, to control their own bodies, and to dispose of their labor and their time” (Garofalo & Mcknight, p. 287). The identity of African American slaves was formed both from their own cultural background they were raised up on and the culture surrounding them in the New World they were sometimes forced into.

           

Short Essay # 2

Short Essay # 2

            After reading “Afro-Latino Voices: Narratives from the Early Modern Ibero-Atlantic World, 1550-1812” by Kathryn Joy McKnight and Leo J. Garofalo, there is skepticism of John Thornton’s argument of the legacy of African culture being translated or shown in McKnight and Garofalo book. There are portions, bits and pieces of the documents in McKnight and Garofalo that give light to Thornton’s cultural argument made in his book “Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800.” It is evident in McKnight and Garofalo that there are some issues that seem to not add up to Thornton’s argument of African Culture. The document that has been compared and contrasted to Thornton’s argument of African culture is the “Maroon Chief Alonso de Illescas’ Letter to the Crown, 1586” by Charles Beatty-Medina.

            When reviewing the document from McKnight and Garofalo, there was some confirmation for Thornton’s argument when comparing the two together. African slaves were known to receive their freedom when there happened to be a shipwreck and could runaway. “In Spanish America, enslaved Africans employed strategies of escape, or marronage, in order to gain their freedom” (Garofalo & McKnight, p. 30). Both Thornton and the document both touch on African slaves marooning. Many slaves first began out on islands before coming to the Americas. African slaves were not well educated and had only their cultural backgrounds to relate to with others. African religion was also tested and manipulated by Christianity and the Catholics. “The African nations of the New World were not simply re-creating Africa; they were developing African concepts in the radically new political and cultural environment of the Americas” (Thornton, p. 326).  The jobs that were available to African Slaves were similar in both texts. There were many African women who also gave birth to Mulatto children in America that were documented by both authors.

 Thornton’s argument was challenged when it came to not confirming parts of the document that were contrasted from Thornton’s text. Thornton’s argument did not express African slaves trying to create an empire or being capable of doing so with their social status being so low on the spectrum as the document claims African slaves did. When there was a demand for African slaves Thornton texts demonstrates that more slaves were sent, but in the document African slaves were not re-populated. Thornton argument was that Africans held onto their own cultures which created new types of communication. “…Africans brought with them a cultural heritage in language, aesthetics, and philosophy that helped to form the newly developing culture of the Atlantic world” (Thornton, p. 129).   The document states that African slaves were engulfed in Spanish culture. “…He was well-versed in Spanish language, customs, and culture” (Garofalo & McKnight, p. 32). The social status of African Salves from the way Thornton’s text reads does not imply that they were able to directly talk to the crown as Africans did in the document from McKnight and Garofalo.

            Overall, the “Maroon Chief Alonso de Illescas’ Letter to the Crown, 1586” document had some rather radical points that could indeed hurt Thornton’s argument. “The letter presented here is the work of Alonso de Illescas, an African Maroon leader in Esmeraldas, and it reflects the roles that fugitive slaves acquired as Spain worked to subjugate and consolidate its empire” (Garofalo & McKnight, p. 30). There happened to be some rather big issues that raised questions between Thornton and the document presented by McKnight and Garofalo. There was a strong push to convert African Slaves religion to the religions that were sprouting in the Americas. “Thus, Africans might agree on the source of religious knowledge in the abstract and hence accept philosophical or cosmological descriptions, but they might not agree too fully on all the specifics” (Thornton, p. 246). Thornton’s argument showed that Africans were able to keep their religious and cultural beliefs and backgrounds. The document seems to imply that African slaves had lost their culture and lived by Spanish cultural standards. The document brings up some issues that don’t fit into Thornton’s argument, such as asking the crown for a pardon, remission or to ask for a discussion. But both the document and Thornton’s argument do bring up broken promises that Africans slaves received over and over again.

There is no doubt that the transfer of African culture across to the Atlantic did indeed occur in both in McKnight and Garofalo as well as in Thornton’s text.  I would not say that Thornton’s argument for the legacy of African culture is fully validated in McKnight and Garofalos document the “Maroon Chief Alonso de Illescas’ Letter to the Crown, 1586.” Not all of the pieces of the document added up to the African Slaves behavior, status, or cultural backgrounds. “…In 1600, the Audiencia, under new leadership, recognized the Maroon dominance in the region, granted them their freedoms and liberties, and began a process of pacifying all of Esmeraldas’ native societies” (Garofalo & McKnight, p. 33). The document seems to promote African slaves dominance over the Spanish crown which does not seem to be possible in Thornton’s argument of African slave’s cultural transfer at the time across the Atlantic.

Short Essay # 1

            In John Thornton’s book “Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400 – 1800”, he brings up the conception of African culture both in Africa and in the New World. Thornton seems to advocate African culture as strong during the black Atlantic slave trade. Looking at Thornton’s view of African culture within Africa versus the African culture seen in the New World, an opportunity will be made available to compare and contrast what African cultures in Africa and the New World had in common. Since Africa is the birth place of most Africans during the period of time presented in this book, it seems only right to start there first.

            Thornton does a wonderful job of bringing out the tough nature in the culture of Africans in Africa. The African people have always accepted the slave trade business as it was something that had always been a part of their cultural upbringing. “Slavery was widespread in Atlantic Africa because slaves were the only form of private, revenue-producing property recognized in African law” (Thornton, p. 74). African slavery in Africa had more perks in that the tasks they were assigned to doing were diverse; some were even of quality and prestige to other kings. “Many slaves had a fairly good life” (Thornton, p. 180). Unfortunately Africans were not allowed to own land by law in Africa, which created fragmented regions and helped drive the slave trade to grow even more. African culture had all the resources and materials they needed to survive, but chose to trade to receive more luxury items from Europeans instead of making them on their own. There are many different languages and dialects within Africa that helped form different cultural societies. Religion was based off of revelations that the African people experienced.  Africans were strong in ship building and military forces which would prove not only useful to themselves, but also to Europeans and when making their way to the New World.

            As Africans were taken by ships to the New World there was a new sense of fear when treated as heathens. Although there was this inferiority complex being built up, African culture still persisted in the New World even when they were brought to the markets or were runaways in the New World. “…Africans brought with them a cultural heritage in language, aesthetics, and philosophy that helped to form the newly developing culture of the Atlantic world” (Thornton, p. 129). Most ships would carry groups of slaves from the same region and then some slave owners gave African slaves an opportunity to find a mate to accompany them. “…Not only was European culture pervasive in the slave society, but it was much more homogeneous then the various African cultures, giving it a coherence that the Africans lacked” (Thornton, p. 184). African sex ratios in the New World were unbalanced, there were normally more men than women owned, but most women were always contributing to their owners with having at least one child a year. “The African nations of the New World were not simply re-creating Africa; they were developing African concepts in the radically new political and cultural environment of the Americas” (Thornton, p. 326). Many slave owners would try to do less then what their original contracts provided for slaves, many slaves on Sundays did not take a day of rest, instead they worked on building their own homes and on personal items needed. “ The absence of clothing rations meant that the Africans had to  produce their own cloth and clothing, perhaps a burden but an opportunity to be self-sufficient and express themselves” (Thornton, p. 170). The African languages used in Africa tended to change to Creole as the main language of communication in the New World. But many Africans would sing in their native tongue.  Religion was still based on revelations but missionaries helped Africans label their religion as Christianity. Between Africa and the New World there were significant changes for Africans, but there was still unity of African culture present in both areas.

            When Africans were home in Africa there was different languages spoken, but when they went to the New World their language eventually united as one in the language of Creole. The basic use of revelations in African religion was still practiced in both Africa and the New World, except the New World had now labeled the religion as Christianity, even when Africans did not believe in orthodoxy. “Thus, Africans might agree on the source of religious knowledge in the abstract and hence accept philosophical or cosmological descriptions, but they might not agree too fully on all the specifics” (Thornton, p. 246). Africans were able to survive in the New World with all the changes around them happening because they still were able to relate back to their own cultural backgrounds. “Aesthetic principles were the element of African culture that survived and endured the best in the Americas” (Thornton, p. 221). Africans still functioned in their down time either in Africa or the New World in their own cultural roots they were raised up on. When looking at African culture it is clear that Africans either in Africa or in the New World helped the economy grow in some way.

            It is evident that Africans played a huge role in trade during the period of the black Atlantic, between Africa and the New World. Thornton shows how versatile Africans were in both their own society in Africa, and how they were able to adjust to literally a whole New World. Being able to survive in another’s culture that has previously been formed before Africans had any clue of what they would be put up to shows how much Africans had to relate back to their own culture, in order to learn how to function in the New World. It is vital to remember that Africans endured a lot but never ever lost touch with their roots of their own culture.

Introdouction and Background in Historical Studies

Hello everyone and welcome to my blog, my name is Rebecca Wolf. I am majoring in secondary education with a focus in history. I am currently in block 2 of my program, I have one more block to go until I get to do my student teaching and graduate in the spring of 2012. My personal favorite areas in history is the Holocaust and World War II.

When it comes to my previous historical studies I have taken many classes in the past couple of years through ASU:
- United States since 1865 (HST 109 and 110)
- American Cultural History to 1865 (HST 313)
- Women in US History 1600 - 1880 (HST 327) and 1880 - 1980 (HST 328)
- US West 20th Century (HST 342)
- Renaissance Europe (HST 351)
- The United States and Latin America (HST 443)

In high school I was apart of a Holocaust class that was able to go to some of the concentration camps in Western Europe.

I am currently in HST 480 which is my methods course for teaching.

I am excited for HST 300 because I am able to focus on the black atlantic, a topic that I do not really have any background in.

Looking forward to blogging with my fellow classmates this semester!